The History of Cartography

Cartography is defined as the science and art of making maps or graphical representations showing spatial concepts at various scales. Maps convey geographic information about a place and can be useful in understanding topography, weather, and culture, depending upon the type of map.   Early forms of cartography were practiced on clay tablets and cave walls. Today, maps can show a plethora of information. Technology such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) allows maps to be made relatively easily with computers. Early Maps and Cartography Some of the earliest known maps date back to 16,500 BCE and show the night sky rather than the Earth. Ancient cave paintings and rock carvings also depict landscape features like hills and mountains. Archaeologists believe that these paintings were used both to navigate the areas they showed and to portray the areas that people visited.   Maps were created in ancient Babylonia (mostly on clay tablets), and it is believed that they were drawn with very accurate surveying techniques. These maps showed topographical features like hills and valleys but also had labeled features. The Babylonian World Map, created in 600 BCE, is considered to be the earliest map of the world. It is unique because it is a symbolic representation of the Earth. Ancient Greeks created the earliest paper maps that were used for navigation, and to depict certain areas of the Earth. Anaximander was the first of the ancient Greeks to draw a map of the known world, and, as such, he is considered to be one of the first cartographers. Hecataeus, Herodotus, Eratosthenes, and Ptolemy were other well-known Greek map makers. The maps they drew were based on explorer observations and mathematical calculations.   The ancient Greek maps are important to the history of cartography because they often showed Greece as being at the center of the world and surrounded by an ocean. Other early Greek maps show the world as divided into two continents—Asia and Europe. These ideas came largely out of Homer’s works as well as other early Greek literature. Many Greek philosophers considered the Earth to be spherical, and this knowledge influenced their cartography. Ptolemy, for instance, created maps by using a coordinate system with parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude to accurately show areas of the Earth as he knew it. This system became the basis for today’s maps, and his atlas Geographia is considered to be an early example of modern cartography. In addition to the ancient Greek maps, early examples of cartography also come out of China. These maps date to the fourth century BCE and were drawn on wooden blocks or produced on silk. Early Chinese maps from the Qin State show various territories with landscape features such as the Jialing River system as well as roads. These are considered some of the world’s oldest economic maps. Cartography continued to develop in China throughout its various dynasties, and in 605 CE an early map using a grid system was created by Pei Ju of the Sui Dynasty. In 801 CE, the Hai Nei Hua Yi Tu (Map of Both Chinese and Barbarian Peoples Within the [Four] Seas) was created by the Tang Dynasty to show China as well as its Central Asian colonies. The map was 30 feet (9.1 meters) by 33 feet (10 meters) and used a grid system with a highly accurate scale.   In 1579, the Guang Yutu atlas was produced; it contained over 40 maps that used a grid system and showed major landmarks like roads and mountains as well as the borders of different political areas. Chinese maps from the 16th and 17th centuries continued to develop in sophistication and clearly showed regions that were newly being explored. By the middle of the 20th century, China developed an Institute of Geography that was responsible for official cartography. It emphasized fieldwork in the production of maps focused on physical and economic geography. European Cartography European early medieval maps were mainly symbolic, similar to those that came out of Greece. Beginning in the 13th century, the Majorcan Cartographic School was developed. This school was a collaboration of mostly Jewish cartographers, cosmographers, navigators, and navigational instrument-makers. The Majorcan Cartographic School invented the Normal Portolan Chart—a nautical mile chart that used gridded compass lines for navigation.   Cartography developed further in Europe during the Age of Exploration as cartographers, merchants, and explorers created maps showing the new areas of the world that they visited. The cartographers also developed detailed nautical charts and maps that were used for navigation. In the 15th century, Nicholas Germanus invented the Donis map projection with equidistant parallels and meridians that converged toward the poles.   In the early 1500s, the first maps of the Americas were produced by the Spanish cartographer and explorer, Juan de la Cosa, who sailed with Christopher Columbus. In addition to maps of the Americas, he created some of the first maps that showed the Americas together with Africa and Eurasia. In 1527, Diogo Ribeiro, a Portuguese cartographer, designed the first scientific world map called the Pà ¡dron Real. This map was important because it very accurately showed the coasts of Central and South America and showed the extent of the Pacific Ocean.   In the mid-1500s, Gerardus Mercator, a Flemish cartographer, invented the Mercator map projection. This projection was based on mathematics and was one of the most accurate for worldwide navigation that was available at the time. The Mercator projection eventually became the most widely used map projection and was a standard taught in cartography. Throughout the rest of the 1500s and into the 1600s and 1700s, further European exploration resulted in the creation of maps showing various parts of the world that had not been mapped before. At the same time as the mapped territory expanded, cartographic techniques continued to grow in their accuracy. Modern Cartography Modern cartography began with the advent of a variety of technological advancements. The invention of tools like the compass, telescope, the sextant, quadrant, and printing press all allowed for maps to be made more easily and accurately. New technologies also led to the development of different map projections that more precisely showed the world. For example, in 1772, the Lambert conformal conic was created, and in 1805, the Albers equal area-conic projection was developed. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the United States Geological Survey and the National Geodetic survey used new tools to map trails and to survey government lands. In the 20th century, the use of airplanes to take aerial photographs changed the types of data that could be used to create maps. Satellite imagery has since become a major source of data and is used to show large areas in great detail. Finally, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a relatively new technology that is changing cartography today because it allows for many different types of maps using various types of data to be easily created and manipulated with computers.

We Should Allow Drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife...

Over the last thirty years the United States has been faced with the problem of dependence on foreign countries for oil and the tight control that these exercise on the energy policies and economics of America. Many of these instances include: the oil embargos of the 1970s, the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990, and the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in 2001. Since the 1970s, one solution offered to reduce our nations dependence on foreign countries for oil has been opening up drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). Proponents say that drilling in ANWR would make the United States more self-sufficient in the area of energy, while at the same time not doing excessive damage to the environment of the area.†¦show more content†¦Another interesting fact about ANWR is that, ?ANWR is home to one of the world?s largest caribou herds as well as 200 other wildlife and plant species.? (Cunningham, William P. Cunningham, Mary Ann and Saigo, Barbara, pg. 413) My argument in favor of opening up oil drilling in ANWR is based on two things: the questionable conclusions that the Lovins article draws from past energy policies and the latest factual and no-so factual data they had available to them at the time. I believe that given the world we live in today, the principles that the Lovins and other use to argue against oil drilling in ANWR can be applied to argue why oil drilling should be open in the tract of land in Alaska. By drilling for oil in Alaska the U.S. will become more self-efficient on fuel, and the opportunity for employment will cause the current unemployment rate to decrease. The drilling creates opportunities not only for oil companies, but also boating and airplane carriers. In the article, the Lovins? write, ?In sum, even if drilling in the Artic Wildlife Refuge posed no environmental or human rights concerns, it still could not be justified on economic or security grounds.? (Armory B. Lovins and L. Hunter Lovins, page 130) This may have been true when they wrote the article but the economics of the United States and the world have changed. They argue that the amount of oil in ANWR and the projected price per barrelShow MoreRelated Should the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge be opened to Oil Drilling?1544 Words   |  7 PagesDrilling oil in Alaskas Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) is a serious issue for environmentalists and for the future of the United States. Should the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge be opened to oil drilling? This paper will debate whether or not we should allow Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to be opened to oil drilling. This will also show the impact it has on the environment, and I will show a critical analysis of th e current issue of whether or not to drill. History Arctic NationalRead MoreEssay about Environmental Views of Anwr2711 Words   |  11 PagesThe Arctic National Wildlife Reserve (ANWR) is a beautiful 19.6 million acre coastal plain, and is located in the Northeastern part of Alaska. ANWR is home to numerous species of wildlife and one of the largest untapped oil preserves in the United States. There is an immense debate between the opposing environmentalists and the politicians who want to drill for oil on a section of ANWR, which is only 1.8% of the refuge. Environmentalists who oppose drilling for oil in Alaska say the wildlife andRead More Environmental Views of Arctic National Wildlife Reserve (ANWR)2507 Words   |  11 Pagesnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The Arctic National Wildlife Reserve (ANWR) is a beautiful 19.6 million acre coastal plain, and is located in the Northeastern part of Alaska. ANWR is home to numerous species of wildlife and one of the largest untapped oil preserves in the United States. There is an immense debat e between the opposing environmentalists and the politicians who want to drill for oil on a section of ANWR, which is only 1.8% of the refuge. Environmentalists who oppose drilling for oil in Alaska say the wildlife andRead MoreThe Arctic National Wildlife Refuge2134 Words   |  9 PagesThe Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) has been the center of a strident controversy and national debate that has raged for over 40 years. The question raising so much contention is whether the federal government should allow drilling for oil and natural gas with the levels of contention paralleling the rise and fall of gas prices. The National Democratic and Republican Parties have taken opposing positions in their national political platforms, with the debate emerging and re-emerging in CongressRead MoreThe Debate Over the Idea of Drilling for Oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge1480 Words   |  6 PagesThe Debate Over the Idea of Drilling for Oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refug e Throughout American history, there have been a number of conflicts and disagreements among the populace over various issues. These conflicts of interest help to define political parties and allow people to distinguish themselves through party allegiance. One such item that is currently being debated is over the idea of drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. For years, environmentalistRead MoreThe Threat Of Global Warming1779 Words   |  8 PagesWe are paying the consequences from past generation’s inability to make the right but hard choices, in order to protect and preserve our environment. The NRDC website lists the top global warming symptoms as melting glaciers, rising sea levels, severe weather patterns, the human health, and wildlife. (Consequences of Global Warming). Drilling in ANWR would cause horrifying situations for the wildlife ecosystem and inescapable affects on life in America and around the world, as we know it. In theRead MoreEssay about Anwr - We Should Drill3741 Words   |  15 PagesANWR: Drilling Mandatory or Unnecessary Shannon Bowerman Hour 7 Laughlin -- February 12, 2008 English Research Paper Shannon Bowerman Hour 7 February 12, 2008 English Research Paper – Introduction Since 1987, the issue of whether or not drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) should be allowed has been one of the concerns of political figures, as well as many Americans. This issue has been fought before the Senate at leastRead More America Does NOT Need to Drill in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge5388 Words   |  22 PagesAmerica Does NOT Need to Drill in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Thesis: If the United States is going to choose to conserve energy responsibly, then our governments energies should not be focused on developing oil in the ANWR, but rather on the topics of conservation through higher fuel efficiency standards in vehicles and by developing alternative energy sources. Conservation, fuel efficiency and alternative energy sources are the solutions that will lead usRead MoreThe Importance Of Drilling For Oil In The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge723 Words   |  3 Pagesto raising revenue by drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in the northeast corner of Alaska. Though pushed for years by Alaskas congressional delegation, tapping that land, set aside for caribou herds and other wildlife, is still not a sure thing. The Senate, House and President Trump each need to agree to a budget proposal that sets up the prospect of a tax code rewrite. Passing a revamp of the tax code is still a big if. But to the west of the refuge along the states NorthRead MoreOil Drilling2003 Words   |  9 PagesOil Drilling Jasmine A. Richardson Freshman Seminar Friday 10:20-11:20 Throughout the years the government has spent millions of dollars on oil drilling. But what is the actual purpose of oil drilling? Is it necessary? Are we spending too much money on this one project or is it useful in the end? These questions have been debated so much over and over again. But the question is am I for or against oil drilling? Oil drilling takes up too much time and money for one simple purpose. It takes

Fundamentals of Business Information Systems free essay sample

Is the pad a disruptive technology? The purpose of this report Is the pad a disruptive technology? is to research and study about the technological developments in Information Systems, such as, the pad and if its a disrupting technology that changes the world or not. Apple introduced the pad in 2010, selling 300,000 on the first day of release and approximately 3 million in 80 days. Given that the features of the pad were similar to the phones, Apple envisioned for this device to be used in a diversity of areas to offer an all-in-one package for computing, connectivity, gaming and any other task consumers might think of. The pad was promoted as a communications device for music, telecommunications, Web and computing, another advancement in information systems. (Kessler, T. 2010) This report will cover the positives and negatives of the pad along with the technological advancements in the Information Systems. The report will create an insight of the effects pads and similar technologies have on the business models of Apple, content creators (such as app developers) and distributors. It will also cover the basics, comparisons, features and specifications on each information system and if its a disruptive or a collaborative technology. For the pad, the main traditional competitors are brands such as Google, Amazon, Samsung, Microsoft, and Sony along with many more. Some products that are competitive against the pad are the Kindle, Samsung Galaxy tablets, Google Nexus and Microsoft tablets. The tablet market has recently increased as new versions of the pad have been released. Smaller models have become increasingly popular in the competitive market. Google is Apples strongest competitor who recently released new market entrants such as the Nexus; along with Amazon introducing seven new Kindles. All prices are at least $100 cheaper than the pad mini and $200 less than he original sized pad. With these two companies combined, they have sold approximately 1 5 million smaller, cheaper tablets according to specific research. (Chin, B. 2012) All these new market entrants introduced new features in aim to enhance and increase their place in the tablet market. Although there is the competition which some may be cheaper, Apple is still the dominant of the tablet market having sold 100 million pads to date. Below is a current usage chart between the time periods of January 2013 March 2013. (Usage Share Change- Top 3 Tablets January 2013 through March 2013. 2013) This chart shows the comparisons between the pad and its competitors and the usage percentages. This is current supporting data of how pads compare to its traditional competitors. As mention brittle bettor, price is a key element in customer decisions to purchase a product. If the price is too high then customers might substitute products. These products are similar and have most or some functionality available as the pad has. As there are many alternatives to the pad including the other tablets mentioned before, Laptop/PC and the Amazon Kindle, the threat of substitute products and services is high. Googles recently released 7-inch Nexus 7 is valued for $200. Amazons seven newly released Kindles price range $160 $300 and the Samsung Tablet products start at $100 and increase. (Chin, B. 012) Looking at these prices the Apple pads start at $499 and reach to prices such as $929, which some customers may prefer to substitute the pad for something of a cheaper range. Many consumers choose to go with the Apple pads due to the brand and features that it offers and for Apples pad; customers have high power in the Competitive Forces Model as they have many choices from whom to buy which is very important. Apple is opting to attract more consumers by focusing o n content. Corporate consumers deem the pad useful for corporate purposes with the ability to have APS for documents and also other business functions. The suppliers also come into the equation as the more different suppliers a firm has, the greater control it can exercise over suppliers in terms of price, quality and delivery schedules. Apple has a strong base of suppliers and currently has over 200 supplying companies who provide raw materials and components or perform final assembly for Apple. Some companies include Delta Electronics Inc. , Hanson Metal Factory. Ltd. , Intel Corporation, Quanta Computer Inc. Along with many more. (Supplier List 2013. 2013) Apple has a current uploaded document on their website which contains a list of suppliers. This list is of their top 200 suppliers which includes component providers and others representing in at least 97 percent of procurement expenditures for materials, manufacturing, and assembly of their products worldwide in 2012. Looking at all five of Porters Competitive Forces model you can evaluate how much impact Apple pads have had on the tablet market competitors, products and services, customers and suppliers. The definition of a disruptive technology is new technologies that come along and change the world in a way. The pad is a platform at which it has the capabilities of a laptop of tablet PC but put in an ostentatious functionality that makes itself unique with the ability to deliver video, music, text, social networking applications and video games. With all these features, pad fits into the description of a disruptive technology with its unique capabilities that have change many ways consumers do things. It is in the publishing and media industries where the pads disruptive impact ill be first felt. News and magazines have both positive and negative impacts with the pad. The pad could assist with struggling newspaper and magazine printing sectors by providing a format that will pay online for. Newspapers were enthusiastic about the pad as it represents a way for them to continue charging for all of the content that they have been required to make available online. As with book publishers, if Apple dominates e portable reader sector, magazine and newspaper publishers will become reliant on them for their continuing success that is a weak position for them in long run. The pad and similar devices (including the Kindle) will force many existing media businesses to change their business models significantly. When it comes to E-books, the pad could be a device that makes eBooks go mainstream. Publishers profit in the arrangement that Apple has provided them with the pad which is announcing their intention to offer a tiered pricing system, giving publishers the opportunity to participate more actively in the pricing of their books compared to Amazon, the technology platform provider and largest distributor of books in the world. The active however is the pad makes existing readers including the Kindle, Sony tablet and Samsung Galaxy look very ordinary and obsolete. A final example of the pad being a disruptive technology is with the music industry. A positive for Apple is that they will be able to maintain their premium pricing. Apple can continue to control the music distribution business and the industry would have to accept what they say and do. Music labels used to make more money selling multiple songs on an album than they did selling popular singles. Now consumers purchasing albums has radically decreased as preference is downloading one song at a time. Apple had already reformed some of its business model by freely acting as an agent selling books rather than Just a book distributor. In the past Apple believed content was less important than the popularity of its devices but soon realized that was unsustainable. If there is no content, people will not purchase the product. The company is now prepared to make agreements with each media industry to distribute many diverse types of content at a price approved upon by the content and platform owners. The pad is another one of Apples successful products and has a major effect on the business models of Apple, content creators and distributors. For the content based business models, the Apple pad has affected eBooks, news, magazines etc. It has created portability for the consumers and everything is to go and a bigger segment. As for the content creators, Apple has high-quality application, personalization; specific customers needs and wants for the product, high competition and more niche contents. Lastly, Apple distributors act as an agent rather than Just a distributor (with a 30% fee on all eBook sales), have more freedom to publishers in relation to eBooks and have agreed with publishers to charge $12- $14 for the eBooks. This results in cheaper eBooks in the future even though publishers are worried about long-term pricing arrangements and expectations. The pad is a very powerful and useful technology device. Consumers choose this product as it is very useful for reading books, magazines, newspapers, for surfing the web, and for watching videos. The following features are what the pad can give consumers. Pad Reading books, magazines or newspapers: * books. Both a way to read books and a way to buy them, books transforms the simple act of reading into something simply delightful. Customize your view. How you read is up to you. Flick trot page to page, change the text size, select deterrent font, adjust the brightness or choose a white, sepia or nighttime-friendly theme. * Use reading tools. You can highlight or underline text, make notes, look up a word in the dictionary or on the web, or search inside the book. You can even use Viceroy to have pad read to you. Surfing the web: * The web-browsing app Safari allows for speedy Wi-If cellular data connections along with a powerful AX chip that results in web pages loading ultraist. Advanced Wi-If technology and Next-generation cellular connectivity up to LET. Apple pad can also come with Wi-If + Cellular. So you can download content, stream video, and browse the web at amazing speeds without a contract or long-term commitment. Watching a Video: * Shoot and Record HAD video in full IPPP using a 5-megalith camera. The Sight camera on pad lets you capture all different occasions. Automatic video stabilization so you have a clear video to playback. Watching videos on the pad is clear and crystal with the feature of Retina display. Faults: * With every technological device there are always some faults. With the pad, consumers have listed some of the faults they experience. These problems consist of; Frozen screen/Unresponsive to your touch; pad wont turn on; tunes doesnt recognize pad; pad wont charge; pad wont connect to Wi-If/Wi-If sync not working; Running slow; and, Cellular data connection dropping. There are also technical faults such as no integrated card reader and no USB, missing support for Adobe flash, no HIDE and no wireless synchronization. Kindle Reader Is the worlds most advanced e-reader with Free 36 higher resolution, higher contrast touchstones with built-in light and 8-week battery life. Reading books, magazines or newspapers: * The kindle has 62% more pixels for unsurpassed resolution, 25% better contrast or sharp, dark text. While reading, the Kindle delivers clear text and images with no glare even in bright sunlight. Adjustable fonts and text size for all consumers needs and holds up to 1,100 books in the library device. Surfing the web: * 36 wireless. Wireless works globally where you can download books anytime, anywhere. Built in Wi-If lets you download books in under 60 seconds Watching Video: * Does not have this feature. Faults: * Amazon talked about three problems consumers are complaining about with the Kindle: the lack of audio, the smaller storage and the lighting problems. It does not eve audio or Text-to-speech . Under certain lighting conditions, the backcloth at the bottom of the screen is not perfectly even. Finally the Kindle has 2 KGB of storage, which some previous models had BIB. This amount of storage holds up to 1,100 books locally on the device. Chain, C. 2012) After researching the capabilities of each device above, I personally believe the pad is a better device for reading books. Along with the many useful features, the pad provides many benefits to reading books using the I KS app to buy, save and store eBooks, newspapers and magazines in the book library. It Retina display allows nonusers to be able to read text clearly both as an eBook or online reading news articles. For an example of pads capabilities theres the feature where you can read articles without distractions. Just tap the Reader icon and clutter instantly disappears. All you will see is the article itself. If consumers do not finish reading the article they have an option to add the articles link to your Reading List and finish it later. Even without internet connection, Safari saves web pages not Just links in your Reading List, so consumers can read even when offline. So for books I use at university courses I would definitely choose the pad. However, when it comes to reading traditional print publications I sometimes prefer to read printed versions of articles or novels. For university, I would use the pad to read eBooks as keeping a variety of books in the books library application is much easier than to carry the multiple books around, which is much heavier than Just taking one technological device. However if I am reading for pleasure in my own time, I prefer to read from printed texts as the feel of the traditional printed versions are sometimes better to read, especially if your reading for a long amount of time. In conclusion to he report the pad is definitely considered a disruptive technology.

Systematic Theology free essay sample

An inclusive form referring to the human species, men and women. A impressive word, covering both male and female * Bible distinguishes between men and women in certain specific gender terms * Gender sensitivity uses:humanity, human beings, humankind, or persons. The Hebrew word for Adam is man * God did not choose to call the human race woman but man. Does it have any significance in male female relationship? Will discuss below . How did man originate? Varieties of views A. Atheistic Evolution : Theorizes the origin of matter and life apart from God. Several billion years ago chemicals in the sea, acted on by sunlight and cosmic energy, formed themselves by hence into one or more single-celled organisms, which have since developed through beneficial mutations and natural selection into all living plants, animals, and people (Eerie, 199:195) Principles of Evolution 1) Planets and the earth resulted from a big bang explosion of compressed, rotating protons and neutrons. We will write a custom essay sample on Systematic Theology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This continues to expand away from the original nucleus at fantastic speed (Eerie,198) 2) Lamarckian (1809), a French naturalist,. All vegetables, animals and man developed from certain original simple germ on earth (Hodge Volvo ii, 11). Lamarckian admitted God having created matter with its properties does nothing ore. Darwin built on Lamarckism theory in his Origin of Species.. 3) All other living organisms have developed from that first and subsequent simpler forms of life, 4) Mutations constitute the explanation for evolution: Mutations are sudden, small changes in the DNA code of genes, which are passed on to the offspring, causing them to differ from their parents 5) Natural selection is the system that preserves the changes caused by mutations. Evolution Based on supposition; survival of the fittest; cannot account for the arrival of the first, the ingot of matter and life Mutations are rare and always harmful. Only one in one million fruit fly will develop a mutation. 2. No mutations have produced new species or even new organ or system an existing species 1 . The whale, the bird, the mosquito, man all derived from slow process of selection countless million of years?. . Life cannot form by chance: the probability of forming one protein molecule by chance is one in 10 243 Figure of 1 followed by 243 zeros. Bases of atheistic evolution: science and faith. Natural selection does not guarantee improvement B. Theistic Evolution. The Theory: God directed and controlled the process of naturalistic evolution throughout the million of years to create the world and all that is in it. The bases of theistic evolution: science and the Bible. The scriptures teach that: God is the life-source, the originator and maintainer of all forms of life, and the one who created all to reproduce after their kind. (Conner, 123). 1. God created man in his image from the dust of the earth and gave his own breath of life to man (Gene 1: 27; 2:7; Image refers to likeness, I. E. Mental; moral; social. Only humans are Gods image-bearers; not animals or plants

SB2C Helldiver - Curtiss SB2C Helldiver

SB2C Helldiver - Curtiss SB2C Helldiver SB2C Helldiver - Specifications: General Length: 36 ft. 9 in. Wingspan: 49 ft. 9 in. Height: 14 ft. 9 in. Wing Area: 422 sq. ft. Empty Weight: 10,114 lbs. Loaded Weight: 13,674 lbs. Crew: 2 Number Built: 7,140 Performance Power Plant: 1 Ãâ€" Wright R-2600 radial engine, 1,900 hp Range: 1,200 miles Max Speed: 294 mph Ceiling: 25,000 ft Armament Guns: 2 Ãâ€" 20 mm (.79 in) cannon in the wings, 2 Ãâ€" 0.30 in M1919 Browning machine guns in rear cockpit Bombs/Torpedo: Internal bay - 2,000 lbs. of bombs or 1 Mark 13 torpedo, Underwing Hard Points - 2 x 500 lb. bombs SB2C Helldiver - Design Development: In 1938, the US Navys Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer) circulated a request for proposals for a for a next-generation dive bomber to replace the new SBD Dauntless. Though the SBD had yet to enter service, BuAer sought an aircraft with greater speed, range, and payload. In addition, it was to be powered by the new Wright R-2600 Cyclone engine, possess an internal bomb bay, and be of a size that two of the aircraft could fit on a carriers elevator. While six companies submitted entries, BuAer selected Curtiss design as the winner in May 1939. Designated the SB2C Helldiver, the design immediately began showing problems. Early wind tunnel testing in February 1940 found the SB2C to have an excessive stall speed and poor longitudinal stability. While efforts to fix the stall speed included increasing the size of the wings, the latter issue presented greater problems and was a result of BuAers request that two aircraft be able to fit on an elevator. This limited the length of the aircraft despite the fact it was to have more power and a greater internal volume than its predecessor. The result of these increases, without an increase in length, was instability. As the aircraft could not be lengthened, the only solution was to enlarge its vertical tail, which was done twice during development. One prototype was constructed and first flew on December 18, 1940. Built in a conventional fashion, the aircraft possessed a semi-monocoque fuselage and two-spar, four-section wings. The initial armament consisted of two .50 cal. machine guns mounted in the cowling as well as one in each wing. This was supplemented by twin .30 cal. machine guns on a flexible mounting for the radio operator. The internal bomb bay could carry a single 1,000 lb. bomb, two 500 lb. bombs, or a torpedo. SB2C Helldiver - Problems Persist: Following the initial flight, problems remained with the design as bugs were found in the Cyclone engines and the SB2C showed instability at high speed. After a crash in February, flight testing continued through the fall until December 21 when the right wing and stabilizer gave out during a dive test. The crash effectively grounded the type for six months as the problems were addressed and the first production aircraft built. When the first SB2C-1 flew on June 30, 1942, it incorporated a variety of changes which increased its weight by nearly 3,000 lbs. and reduced its speed by 40 mph. SB2C Helldiver - Production Nightmares: Though unhappy with this drop in performance, BuAer was too committed to the program to pull out and was forced to push ahead. This was partly due to an earlier insistence that the aircraft be mass-produced to anticipate wartime needs. As a result, Curtiss had received orders for 4,000 aircraft before the first production type flew. With the first production aircraft emerging from their Columbus, OH plant, Curtiss found a series of problems with the SB2C. These generated so many fixes that a second assembly line was built to immediately modify newly built aircraft to the latest standard. Moving through three modification schemes, Curtiss was not able to incorporate all of the changes into the main assembly line until 600 SB2Cs were built. In addition to the fixes, other alterations to the SB2C series included the removal of the .50 machine guns in the wings (the cowl guns had been removed earlier) and replacing them with 20mm cannon. Production of the -1 series ended in spring 1944 with the switch to the -3. The Helldiver was built in variants through -5 with key changes being the use of a more powerful engine, four-bladed propeller, and the addition of wing racks for eight 5 in. rockets. SB2C Helldiver - Operational History: The reputation of the SB2C was well known before the type began arriving in late 1943. As a result, many front-line units actively resisted giving up their SBDs for the new aircraft. Due to its reputation and appearance, the Helldiver quickly earned the nicknames Son of a Bitch 2nd Class, Big-Tailed Beast, and just Beast. Among the issues put forward by crews in regard to the SB2C-1 was that it was underpowered, poorly built, possessed a faulty electrical system, and required extensive maintenance. First deployed with VB-17 aboard USS Bunker Hill, the type entered combat on November 11, 1943 during raids on Rabaul. It was not until spring 1944 that the Helldiver began to arrive in larger numbers. Seeing combat during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the type had a mixed showing as many were forced to ditch during the long return flight after dark. Despite this loss of aircraft, it sped the arrival of improved SB2C-3s. Becoming the US Navys principal dive bomber, the SB2C saw action during the remainder of the conflicts battles in the Pacific including Leyte Gulf, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Helldivers also took part in attacks on the Japanese mainland. As later variants of the aircraft improved, many pilots came to have a grudging respect for the SB2C citing its ability to sustain heavy damage and remain aloft, its large payload, and longer range. Despite its early problems, the SB2C proved an effective combat aircraft and may have been the best dive bomber flown by the US Navy. The type was also the last designed for the US Navy as actions late in the war increasingly showed that fighters equipped with bombs and rockets were as effective as dedicated dive bombers and did not require air superiority. In the years after World War II, the Helldiver was retained as the US Navys prime attack aircraft and inherited the torpedo bombing role previously filled by the Grumman TBF Avenger. The type continued to fly until it was finally replaced by the Douglas A-1 Skyraider in 1949. SB2C Helldiver - Other Users: Watching the success of the German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka during the early days of World War II, the US Army Air Corps began looking for a dive bomber. Rather than seek a new design, the USAAC turned to existing types then in use with the US Navy. Ordering a quantity of SBDs under the designation A-24 Banshee, they also made plans to purchase a large number of modified SB2C-1s under the name A-25 Shrike. Between late 1942 and early 1944 900 Shrikes were built. Having re-assessed their needs based on combat in Europe, the US Army Air Forces found these aircraft were not needed and turned many back to the US Marine Corps while some were retained for secondary roles. The Helldiver was also flown by the Royal Navy, France, Italy, Greece, Portugal, Australia, and Thailand. French and Thai SB2Cs saw action against the Viet Minh during the First Indochina War while Greek Helldivers were used to attack Communist insurgents in the late 1940s. The last nation to use the aircraft was Italy which retired their Helldivers in 1959. Selected Sources Ace Pilot: SB2C HelldiverMilitary Factory: SB2C Helldiver Warbird Alley: SB2C Helldiver

Civil Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Civil Justice - Essay Example What is noted in this research is that normal, everyday people who would normally not associate themselves in any criminal actions feel impacted by their sociological and environmental situations (such as the hurricane) to go ahead and commit crime. The behavior of these actions is solely based on personal choice or we could say a rational type of theory of crime. This paper explores many reasons into the behaviors of crime as well as a little of the biological issues. It also offers up some of the criminal actions that are considered to be of a more detrimental nature to society as a whole. Any type of criminal behavior poses a threat to society but there are specific criminal actions that would seem to pose more of a higher percentage of concern. One of the scariest and deadly has to do with those who would stalk their unsuspecting victims. Although the definition of stalking varies from state to state the most common perception of this activity is of someone being involved with actions that almost certainly place an individual in a state of fear for their life (Using: National Center for Victims of Crime 1995). This form of crime has only just recently received the distinct classification of separation from other associative acts classified in the area of domestic violence. The reasons for this are difficult to pinpoint but the main assumption is due to the fact that the need to focus more fully on combating and minimizing it is the main cause of the legal changes stemming from its occurrences. This specific crime is difficult to find an estimate for simply because i t is not reported by law enforcement like other crimes are. However, an approximated figure could be guessed to be around 1 in every 20 women in America will at some point become a victim of a stalker. Since Congress passed the 1994 Crime Bill, better statistics are now available to correctly calculate and determine how prevalent this type of violent criminal activity has become (Using: National Center for Victims of Crime 1995). Sociological Factors of Stalking Also, there are various phases of stalking and different reasons for the act of this crime taking place. It could be relative from an obsession over someone or it could be a simple obsession where an actual romantic relationship did in fact take place. In this category there are defining characteristics that lead up and actually provide a more concise interpretation of the stalking activity. These character traits are as follows: Socially maladjusted and inept Emotionally immature Often subject to feelings of powerlessness Unable to succeed in relationships by socially acceptable means Jealous bordering on paranoid Extremely insecure about themselves and suffering from low self-esteem (Using: National Center for Victims of Crime 1995). These are all typical characteristics and all of which can lead the possible offender into perpetrating violent tendencies towards the person of their obsession and stalking. Quite possibly it is these types of stalking cases, which stem from domestic violence situations, which have been found to be the most lethal type of stalking activities. In fact, these cases have a 75% higher risk of the victim being murdered by the stalker than in other

What is sub-prime lending and how has it affected the housing crisis Essay

What is sub-prime lending and how has it affected the housing crisis - Essay Example nd the nature of subprime lending, this paper also provides a background of the subprime lending which gained popularity in the 1990’s, and also a comparison with other forms of mortgages like the prime lending. Subprime lending is a type of granting loans in which the client’s ability to pay is questionable. Kenneth Temkin et. al (2002) add that subprime lending mortgage originations are more inclined to risky borrowers. According to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, subprime loans are given to individuals with limited credit histories. One reason for this is the lack of background check on the borrower. In order to compensate for the higher credit risk, the loans that are given have higher interest rates.1 The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development presents three (3) truths about the subprime lenders: (1) the increased shares of subprime lenders’ overall origination as compared to the prime lenders’ originations are due to home refinance loans; (2) they occupy a bigger percentage in total originations in black-predominated communities than prime lenders; and (3) terms like â€Å"consumer, finance, and acceptance† are seen more in their lender names.2 Temkin et al. (2002) find out that subprime borrowers have lower incomes or belong to minority groups than their primary counterparts. They have less information financially on the bank mechanisms. They are also less sophisticated and less comfortable in dealing with banks. Danielle DiMartino and John Duca (2007) add that the prime or the traditional mortgages are offered to borrowers with good credit histories and can make down payments and document their income entirely. Whereas the subprime or the nontrad itional mortgages, are extended to borrower applicants who are less credit-worthy as reflected by their low credit scores and unsure income forecasts which â€Å"reflect the highest default risk and warrant the highest interest rates†. They also introduce the near-prime